Classroom management is a term used by
teachers to describe the process of ensuring that classroom
lessons run smoothly despite
disruptive behavior by
students.
The term also implies the prevention of disruptive behavior. It is
possibly the most difficult aspect of teaching for many teachers; indeed
experiencing problems in this area causes some to leave teaching
altogether. In 1981 the US
National Educational Association
reported that 36% of teachers said they would probably not go into
teaching if they had to decide again. A major reason was "negative
student attitudes and discipline".
[1]
According to Moskowitz & Hayman (1976), once a teacher loses
control of their classroom, it becomes increasingly more difficult for
them to regain that control.
[2]
Also, research from Berliner (1988) and Brophy & Good (1986) shows
that the time a teacher has to take to correct misbehavior caused by
poor classroom management skills results in a lower rate of academic
engagement in the classroom.
[3]
From the student’s perspective, effective classroom management involves
clear communication of behavioral and academic expectations as well as a
cooperative learning environment.
[4]
Classroom management is closely linked to issues of
motivation,
discipline and
respect.
Methodologies remain a matter of passionate debate amongst teachers;
approaches vary depending on the beliefs a teacher holds regarding
educational psychology. A large part of traditional classroom
management involves behavior modification, although many teachers see using
behavioral approaches alone as overly simplistic. Many teachers establish
rules and procedures at the beginning of the
school year. According to Gootman (2008), rules give students concrete direction to ensure that our expectation becomes a reality.
[5]
They also try to be consistent in enforcing these rules and
procedures. Many would also argue for positive consequences when rules
are followed, and
negative consequences when rules are broken. There are newer perspectives on classroom management that attempt to be
holistic. One example is
affirmation
teaching, which attempts to guide students toward success by helping
them see how their effort pays off in the classroom. It relies upon
creating an environment where students are successful
as a result of their own efforts.
[6]
By creating this type of environment, students are much more likely to
want to do well. Ideally, this transforms a classroom into a community
of well-behaved and self-directed learners.
Techniques
Corporal punishment
Until recently,
corporal punishment
was widely used as a means of controlling disruptive behavior but it is
now no longer fashionable, though it is still advocated in some
contexts by people such as
James Dobson.
Rote discipline
Also known as "lines," rote discipline is a negative
sanction used for
behavior management.
It involves assigning a disorderly student sentences or the classroom
rules to write repeatedly. Among the many types of classroom management
approaches, it is very commonly used.
Preventative techniques
Preventative approaches to classroom management involve creating a
positive classroom community with mutual respect between teacher and
student. Teachers using the preventative approach offer warmth,
acceptance, and support unconditionally - not based on a student’s
behavior. Fair rules and consequences are established and students are
given frequent and consistent feedback regarding their behavior.
[7]
One way to establish this kind of classroom environment is through the
development and use of a classroom contract. The contract should be
created by both students and the teacher. In the contract, students and
teachers decide and agree on how to treat one another in the classroom.
The group also decides on and agrees to what the group will do should
there be a violation of the contract. Rather than a consequence, the
group should decide on a way to fix the problem through either class
discussion, peer mediation, counseling, or by one on one conversations
leading to a solution to the situation.
Preventative techniques also involve the strategic use of praise and
rewards to inform students about their behavior rather than as a means
of controlling student behavior. In order to use rewards to inform
students about their behavior, teachers must emphasize the value of the
behavior that is rewarded and also explain to students the specific
skills they demonstrated to earn the reward. Teachers should also
encourage student collaboration in selecting rewards and defining
appropriate behaviors that will earn rewards.
[8]
Systematic Approaches
The Good Behavior Game
The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is a "classroom-level approach to behavior management"
[9]
that was originally used in 1969 by Barrish, Saunders, and Wolf. The
Game entails the class earning access to a reward or losing a reward,
given that all members of the class engage in some type of behavior (or
did not exceed a certain amount of undesired behavior). The GBG can be
used to increase desired behaviors (e.g., question asking) or to
decrease undesired behaviors (e.g., out of seat behavior). The GBG has
been used with preschoolers as well as adolescents, however most
applications have been used with typically developing students (i.e.,
those without developmental disabilities). In addition, the Game "is
usually popular with and acceptable to students and teachers."
[10]
Discipline with Dignity
According to its founders, Discipline with Dignity is one of the most
widely practiced behavior management philosophies in the world. Founded
by Dr.
Richard Curwin and Dr.
Allen Mendler,
the program is utilized in more than 12 different countries. Discipline
with Dignity provides an in-depth flexible approach for effective
school and classroom management. With a strong focus on developing
responsibility, it is a comprehensive, practical program that leads to
improved student behavior through responsible thinking, cooperation,
mutual respect, and shared decision-making.
Tools for Teaching
Tools for Teaching is a classroom management method created and taught by Fred Jones on speaking tours and in the eponymous book series
Positive Classrooms
Positive Classrooms
developed by Dr. Robert DiGiulio sees positive classroom management as
the result of four factors: how teachers regard their students
(spiritual dimension), how they set up the classroom environment
(physical dimension), how skillfully they teach content (instructional
dimension), and how well they address student behavior (managerial
dimension).
Assertive Discipline
Assertive discipline
is another systematic approach of classroom management. Lee and Marlene
Canter discuss the ideas behind this approach in several published
books.
Discipline without Stress, Punishments or Rewards
Discipline without Stress (or DWS) is a K-12 discipline and learning
approach developed by Dr. Marvin Marshall described in his 2001 book,
Discipline without Stress, Punishments or Rewards.
[11]
The approach is designed to educate young people about the value of
internal motivation. The intention is to prompt and develop within youth
a desire to become responsible and self-disciplined and to put forth
effort to learn. The most significant characteristics of DWS are that it
is totally noncoercive (but not permissive) and takes the opposite
approach to Skinnerian behaviorism that relies on external sources for
reinforcement.
Classroom management as a process
In the
Handbook of Classroom Management: Research Practice and Contemporary Issues (2006),
[12]
Evertson and Weinstein characterize classroom management as the actions
taken to create an environment that supports and facilitates academic
and social–emotional learning. Toward this goal, teachers must (1)
develop caring, supportive relationships with and among students; (2)
organize and implement instruction in ways that optimize students’
access to learning; (3) use group management methods that encourage
students’ engagement in academic tasks; (4) promote the development of
students’ social skills and self–regulation; and (5) use appropriate
interventions to assist students with behavior problems.
Dr. Tracey Garrett also describes classroom management as a process
consisting of key tasks that teachers must attend to in order to
development an environment conducive to learning. These tasks include:
(1) organizing the physical environment, (2) establishing rules and
routines, (3) developing caring relationships, (4) implementing engaging
instruction and (5) preventing and responding to discipline problems.
Classroom Management Essentials,
created by Dr. Tracey Garrett, is the first classroom management app
for the iPad, iPhone and iPod touch that guides teachers through the
tasks involved in the process of classroom management.
Classroom management as time management
In their introductory text on teaching, Kauchak and Eggen
(2008)Kauchak, D., and Eggen, P. (2008). Introduction to teaching:
Becoming a professional (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Education, Inc. explain classroom management in terms of time
management. The goal of classroom management, to Kauchak and Eggen, is
to not only maintain order but to optimize student learning. They divide
class time into four overlapping categories, namely allocated time,
instructional time, engaged time, and academic learning time.
Allocated time
Allocated time is the total time allotted for teaching, learning, and
routine classroom procedures like attendance and announcements.
Allocated time is also what appears on a student's schedule, for example
"Introductory Algebra: 9:50-10:30 a.m." or "Fine Arts 1:15-2:00 p.m."
Instructional time
Instructional time is what remains after routine classroom procedures
are completed. That is to say, instructional time is the time wherein
teaching and learning actually takes place. Teachers may spend two or
three minutes taking attendance, for example, before their instruction
begins.
Engaged time
Engaged time is also called time on task. During engaged time,
students are participating actively in learning activities—asking and
responding to questions, completing worksheets and exercises, preparing
skits and presentations, etc.
Academic learning time
Academic learning time occurs when students 1) participate actively
and 2) are successful in learning activities. Effective classroom
management maximizes academic learning time.
Common mistakes in classroom behavior management
In an effort to maintain order in the classroom, sometimes teachers
can actually make the problems worse. Therefore, it is important to
consider some of the basic mistakes commonly made when implementing
classroom behavior management strategies. For example, a common mistake
made by teachers is to define the problem behavior by how it looks
without considering its function.
[13]
Interventions are more likely to be effective when they are
individualized to address the specific function of the problem behavior.
Two students with similar looking misbehavior may require entirely
different intervention strategies if the behaviors are serving different
functions. Teachers need to understand that they need to be able to
change the ways they do things from year to year, as the children
change. Not every approach works for every child. Teachers need to learn
to be flexible. Another common mistake is for the teacher to become
increasingly frustrated and negative when an approach is not working.
[13]
The teacher may raise his or her voice or increase adverse
consequences in an effort to make the approach work. This type of
interaction may impair the teacher-student relationship. Instead of
allowing this to happen, it is often better to simply try a new
approach.
Inconsistency in expectations and consequences is an additional mistake that can lead to dysfunction in the classroom.
[13]
Teachers must be consistent in their expectations and consequences to
help ensure that students understand that rules will be enforced. To
avoid this, teachers should communicate expectations to students clearly
and be sufficiently committed to the classroom management procedures to
enforce them consistently.
must
include information about both the magnitude and the
direction of the bowling ball. It is not enough to
say that the ball has 10 kg•m/s of momentum; the
momentum of the ball is not fully described until
information about its direction is given. The direction of
the momentum vector is the same as the direction of the
velocity of the ball. In a previous unit, it was said that
